Corporate social resposibilty for cannon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Corporate social resposibilty for cannon - Essay Example Sustainability marketing adopts business practices, which promote sustainability in various aspects. These offer a remedy to environmental problems, and include a company’s production methods, as well as products, and marketing activities, which should result in minimal or no environmental pollution and depletion of resources (Charter et al 2002). Nonetheless, sustainable marketing is beneficial to a company in many ways. Sustainability marketing helps in the optimization of the performance of a company. According to Hunt (2010), adoption of sustainable marketing gives a company a competitive advantage. This will then result in an increased financial performance of a company. Often, companies compete for a competitive advantage in resources, which will offer them a position of competitive advantage in the market, and this is achieved by adoption of sustainable marketing. ... This is because customers and businesses are not restricted to buying the brand only. These also buy the philosophies and policies of a company. Therefore, most clients will purchase from a company that prioritizes environmental, social, and ethical issues (Charter et al 2002). Sustainable marketing also helps a company to create strong relationships with its customers, employees, other companies, and the community. If a company adopts sustainable marketing, this gives it brand trust. Therefore, customers and other stakeholders will have trust in the company, thus show their loyalty to the company, and this boosts positive relationships in the company, which is important for the prosperity and sustainability of a company (Diane & Schouten 2012). Question 2 According to Belz & Peattie (2012, p.29) sustainability marketing involves â€Å". . .planning, organizing, implementing, and controlling marketing resources and programmes to satisfy customers’ wants and needs, while consi dering social and environmental criteria and meeting corporate objects.† Therefore, using the sustainability marketing framework by Belz & Peattie (2012), it is possible to evaluate how Dannon integrates different elements of sustainability marketing into its business approach. In this sustainability marketing framework, two major aspects are essential are important, and these include the consumer behaviour and socio-ecological problems. Therefore, when developing different sustainability marketing elements, Dannon had to consider the behaviour of its customers in the market, as well as the present socio-ecological problems, which are prevalent in this 21st Century, where increased globalization and technological advances are experienced (Lofdahl

Week Two Learning Team Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week Two Learning Team Reflection - Essay Example Waldo had previously tried to explain to her supervisor several times that she is being subject to sexual harassment and violence. There are certain employee rights which are to be abided by all companies because the government has laid down strict rules and regulations with respect to human respect and to ensure that there is no discrimination with respect to gender and race. These rules are set to ensure that the employees are not abused in any manner. Harassment issues are a common problem and that is why law a law has been implemented. Waldo did not keep quiet about her harassment by the employer. Waldo claimed that her current employer subjected her to gender discrimination, hostile work environment, and retaliation under state and federal law. Waldo took the company to the court to claim her rightful place in the society and to punish the company for its wrongful behavior in order to ensure that it is not repeated again and again with other employees. Several trials were held in this regard and the employer was punished by awarding Waldo a lump-sum amount of $400,000 in compensatory damage and $7,500,000 in punitive damage (MOORE,

Loss of my Grandfather Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Loss of my Grandfather - Essay Example This discussion stresses that the death of the author's grandfather meant a disorganization in their family system. Since childhood, grandfather used to tell them that their extended family was an emotional unit that could be bonded by love and unity. In addition, grandfather had been advising the entire family against isolation and self-centeredness whereby people could do things for personal or individual gain. Soon after the death of grandfather, family meetings were no longer held as the unifying factor existed no more. For example, the author's uncle relocated, aunt transferred to her work place to the city and my family decided on staying on our grandfather’s farm where they live with our grandmother.   Ã‚  From this paper it is clear that grandfather was an elder in their local church, and for that matter, we used to go to his church. He built our spirituality in terms of getting involved in organized religion, engaging in various church ministries, going to church ev ery Sunday and even doing evangelism on weekends. Once he died, there was laziness on Sunday as they go to church whenever they feel like, they no longer participate in church ministries like they used to and they completely forgot about bible studies or even praying together as a family. The spirituality of their family was adversely affected to the extent that they no longer give tithes like they used to do as a family.

Modernism Visual Comical Strips Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Modernism Visual Comical Strips - Research Paper Example The essay "Modernism Visual Comical Strips" discovers modernism and visual comical strips. The modernism arts focused on freedom and individuality as evidence from Pablo Picasso’s art works. Modernism art, therefore, saw the emergence of some new media especially photography thus it emerged during the eras of history of photography and this explains why history records the photographers of 19th century. Modernism also marked the beginning of the new art forms like animation, assemblage, cinematography and even the avant-garde art, including the earliest conceptual art forms and the same style was used on comic strips as the same themes are portrayed in the modernism cartoons and other visual comedy. Style and setting of modernism comical strips used backgrounds that showed how the society evolved to become civilized. In most modernism comedies, the artists used black and white backgrounds to show an evolving society unlike the postmodernist artists that have used technology to affect the backgrounds to the desired colors. On the other hand, most of the modernism comedies centered on war and how servants served their masters. Moreover, modernism visual comedy shows the activities of social organization, architecture, and economic situations in the modernist era that become outdated as industrial revolution took over the world. Post modernism art came about after the emergence of modernism arts and as such, contradicted the aspects of the modernism art. Post modernism in visual art includes general aspects.

Planar Ultra Wideband Antenna for Microwave Imaging System for Medical Essay - 2

Planar Ultra Wideband Antenna for Microwave Imaging System for Medical Application (Project Debrief) - Essay Example I am feeling fortunate to have got an opportunity to work under IAP on the project titled ‘Planar Ultra Wideband Antenna for Microwave Imaging System for Medical Application’. For me it was a God sent opportunity as I had got an opportunity to not only put theory to practice at a workplace setting but had even got a chance to work on the subject (medical technology) whose wonders have been inspiring me for over a decade when we got a wireless hearing aid for my grandmother – now an octogenarian. For this project Centre for Wireless Monitoring and Applications (CWMA) was my industry partner. CWMA has a number of achievements to its credit and the research at CWMA is powered by a battery of internationally acclaimed researchers. Prof. Amin Abbosh – a international expert and a point of reference in Ultra-Wideband Imaging, accepted me as his researcher and it was a very exceptional learning experience to work with him. The 15 weeks assignment started on 27th July. I prepared a Gantt chart for the project and it was designed on the basis of the Table 1. (Annexure I). From the beginning of the project I followed project management principles. After preparing the project plan and the Gantt chart, since I had not worked on any simulation tool, and to design the antenna the simulation tool had to play a crucial role. Computer Simulation Technology Microwave Studio (CST MWS) being a specialist tool for the 3D EM simulation of high frequency was used. The first jolt I suffered in the project was the delay I had to face in getting CST MWS from the University, I got it almost a month later than desired. I had to double up to meet the project milestones. While working on CST MSW, I started working on the literature survey. I utilized IEEE Explore (IEEE’s the digital library) at the University. Since I reside away from the University I

Tamworth Town Essay Example for Free

Tamworth Town Essay The task is to create some sort of form that will capture the relevant data from the people who fill it in. Consequently, people fill it in after collecting it in the shop, or at other shops and then we get members, which leads to rentals, and money for my Uncle. The data capture form will be an A5 piece of paper, and will have all the relevant fields needed to input a new customer into the list. In this task, I will have to use boxes that are the same size and ones that are big enough to fit hand written letters in. In addition, the boxes will need to be straight, or it will look incompetent. Moreover, to create a professional look, it will have to be a small form, two per A4 sheets, because one per A4 sheet would be rather large, and extremely clumsy. Additionally, to reduce incompetence, I should align the boxes singularly, so that every box is in line perfectly. For each field I will need the correct number of boxes: Title = 4 boxes   First Name = 16 boxes   Second Name = 16 boxes   House Number = 12 boxes   Road Name = 16 boxes   Town = 12 boxes   Postal Code = 4 and 3 boxes Home Phone = 5 and 6 boxes Date of Birth = 2 and 2 and 4 boxes. Password = 16 boxes Software Requirements The software I choose must be able to: Import pictures, so that I can put use my created logo publicly. Create input boxes, so that they can be filled in appropriately, a letter at a time.   Move pictures, so that the logo can be moved into an appropriate position.   Input text, so that the input boxes have titles, so that people know where to write what.   Overlap and underlay objects, so that if the logo is near any input boxes, it can under lap them, and not overlap them with its white background. Change the text font, and size, so that I do not have to keep boring Arial text, and can make good titles.   Align objects, so that my input boxes can be arranged in a line, so they are straight, and not odd and disproportionate. Software I could use Microsoft Word to do this task. However, it is only a word processor, and cannot do some complex functions I need to perform. It cannot align objects, as far as I know, and for a professional look, I definitely need this feature, I need the input boxes to look as neat as possible. I also know of no way to under and overlap objects in MSWord. This is also important if I wish to place my logo directly above my input boxes, as its white background may go over the top of the boxes. I could use Serif Page plus eight for this task. It is a publishing program, and has all of the features I need. It can import pictures using the usual copy and paste technique, but through Insert Picture as well. It can create boxes using the object drawer, which preset is a box. So all you need to do is click on the box on the left hand side toolbar, and draw the box to the wanted size. It can move pictures by dragging them, click, and hold, then drag. It can input text in two ways, a normal frame box, or a graphic text one. The normal one is easier to read, so I will use that. It can over and under lap objects with the two buttons on the arrange toolbar, at the top: With these, the left sends the item to the back, and the right one brings the picture to the front. It can change text through the formatting toolbar, which is normally on the top of the display, at the bottom of all the toolbars. It can align objects by highlighting them and then right clicking and clicking Align Objects, and then selecting to which side it needs aligning. This is useful because you can choose which side you can align it to. Conclusion I am going to use Serif page plus eight for this task because it is the best program for the job. It can do everything that is needed from the task and can do a lot more than Microsoft Word can. It can underlay and overlap, and it can align objects, both of which are key to the task in hand. It is simple to use and all the major tools are on the screen in toolbars, no need to use menus. Outline Plan I am going to load a new page and then turn it into landscape mode. After that, I will produce titles for each input subject, and then create boxes for each input subject; the numbers of boxes are listed above. Then I will put the background in, by creating a square and using the fill and linear techniques to put a white and light blue background behind all the boxes. I will then put the logo at the top above all the boxes, to the left a bit, leaving space on the right for the address to go in. After that I will input two more graphics, which are two port-hole type circles, with a blue centre, I have two different sizes, the big will go at the top, and the small at the bottom.

Factors Which Affect Peoples Travel Patterns Tourism Essay

Factors Which Affect Peoples Travel Patterns Tourism Essay This essay will discuss the extent to which the form and structure of the city, along with its transport network influences individual travel patterns. The different types of areas within metropolitan Perth will also be taken into consideration. Due to the fact that the size of a city correlates with its density, the densest cities tend to also be the largest cities, which will in turn mean that people living in such a city are expected to embark on longer commutes. According to Brindle, there is a small but significant relationship between residential density and car ownership: a large increase in residential density is associated with a small decrease in car ownership. It can also be deducted that the primary determinants of car ownership in a home include the size of the household, income, and the number of workers per household. Transit availability is also a significant factoring determining car ownership. (Brindle R 2003) Recent research shows that peoples travel behavior is related to certain characteristics of the built environment. This kind of travel behavior which includes trip-making frequency, distance and time travelled havebeen studied for a variety of land use patterns, street networks and streetscape design features. Table 1gives a synthesis of past research on urban form and travel behaviour relationship. Broadly, it can beobserved that studies related to urban form and travel patterns originate from diverse sources andencompass a variety of geographic scale and locations. To add to this diversity, many differentcharacteristics of urban form too have been examined in these studies and travel patterns have beenmeasured in a number of ways. This section brings together the urban form indicators used and results ofrecent studies concerning urban form and travel patterns.Travel patterns are a result of individual choice to pursue activity at another location, choice ofdestination, choice of mode, choice of route and time (Munshi, 2003). Thus travel is a function ofcharacteristics of the base location (origin of the travel) and the environment surrounding the baselocation. The surrounding environment to the base location has been studied in various terms, e.g.through distance to opportunities, like distance to city centre or sub centres. Distance to the city centrehas been studied in relation to travel distance and transport energy consumption by (Naess and Sandberg,1996; Stead and Marshall, 2001; Mogridge, 1985). Another indicator of the surrounding environment tothe base location is related to the mixing of land use as this is assumed to affect the physical separation ofactivities in the environment surrounding the base location and therefore is a determinant of travel Page 3 XIII Back to menu Retour ausommaire 3 demand. It has been mainly measured as the job ratio and has been studied in relation to journeyfrequency in (Ewing, 1995) as well as in relation to proportion of trips made by non-motorized modes in(Cervero, 1989). The proportion of residential to non residential use has also been studied in relation to atransport mode index in (Zhang and Guindon, 2006). An aggregate measure of land use mix (termed asdiversity) was examined by Cervero and Kockelman (1997), who report a link between land use mix andtotal non-work travel distance. The provision of local facilities and services may clearly reduce traveldistance and increase the proportion of short journeys capable of being travelled by non-motorizedmodes. Winter and Farthing (1997) reported that the provision of local facilities in new redevelopmentreduces average trip distances. Hanson (Hanson, 1982) reports similar findings, showing that theproximity to local facilities is positively associated with average distance taking into account averagesocio-economic characteristics of the trip maker. The type of neighbourhood at the base location is alsoknown to affect travel as reported in Cevero and Kockelman (1997). They found that neighbourhoodswith high proportion of four-way intersection and limited on-street parking abutting commercialestablishment tended to have an average less drive-alone travel for non-work purposes. Factors which affect peoples travel patterns Humans are naturally built to move around and travel. As soon as a person starts growing and has the strength, the person begins to go to various destinations and starts crawling around the house or running around, or walking to a friends house. As adults we frequently hurry to vehicles to go off somewhere. According to their age and other socio-demographic factors, people travel to various places by many modes. As it is though, the environment in which we currently live is planned for and traditionally suited to automobile travel. This narrow transportation planning vision compromises all of our travel decisions, but increasingly so for children and the caregivers who must provide them transportation to their important activities such as education and social events (Beauumont and Pianca 20023.2 Transportation Mode and Spatial Learning Although studies carried out by cognitive mapping researchers point to a connection between spatial learning, and travel patterns, not much can be concluded about the manner in which existing transportation infrastructures affect peoples travel patterns and route selection. Recent research suggests that transportation infrastructure and modal networks such as transit routes, sidewalks, local streets, bike lanes, freeway networks and roads does have an effects on the travel behavior and the development of cognitive maps.The hierarchical nature of both transportation networks and land use systems in an urbanenvironment can affect the cognitive mapping process. In general, the more significant aparticular pathway or landmark is to an individuals navigation, the more it will dominate thecognitive map (7). The hierarchies of pathways in a region, such as highway and freewaysegments dominating arterial and main roads, which in turn dominate local community andneighborhood street systems, contribute to the hierarchical organization of cognitive maps. Infact, individuals will recognize elements in the environment more quickly if primed by a cue Mondschein, Blumenberg, and Taylor6from the same portion of their regional hierarchy. Zannaras also found that the layout of a citysignificantly explained variations in the accuracy of wayfinding and location tasks (20). Sectorally-organized cities proved the more effective for remembering locations, whileconcentrically-organized cities made wayfinding and location tasks more difficult. Likewise,familiarity, or route learning, is clearly an important part of both route selection and modechoice because familiarity is dependent on repeated experience. Stern and Portugali highlighttwo aspects of route familiarity: [1] Familiarity with city structures, specific experience of a given locality in the city, and a general familiarity with the road hierarchy, signage, and traffic also affect peoples travel patterns. People who made use of different modes of transportation and travel tend to develop different degrees of familiarity with each transport system. This shows that individuals who use different transportation networks, will understand the same urban environment from differing perspectives. For example automobile users and transit users, will understand a given city in very different ways. Much of the scholarship on cognitive mapping has focused on drivers and the street andhighway network (22). This emphasis is likely due to the dominant role of automobiles as wellas the route flexibility associated with using the street network. Yet preliminary evidencesuggests that cognitive maps are differentially shaped by alternate transportation modes. Forexample, we know that individuals who rely on public transit or walking, on average, travelshorter distances and travel less frequently than those who travel by motor vehicle. Therefore,one can hypothesize that the scope of their spatial knowledge would be more limited anddifferently configured (by, for example, the network of transit routes) than those who rely onautomobiles and can travel longer distances at greater flexibility and speed. The quality and detail of spatial maps also may differ by mode. In a study of childrentraveling to school, active modes of travel, such as walking and biking, appear to contributemore to the development of spatial knowledge than passive modes of travel, such as beingchauffeured by an adult or riding in a school bus. Specifically, walking and cycling to schoolhave been found to increase knowledge of the environment in comparison to children who arebused (23). These results suggest that variation in transportation mode may result in verydifferent levels of functional accessibility for individuals from otherwise similar socioeconomicor cultural backgrounds. Finally, research also suggests that travel behavior is influenced by perceptions ofdistance which affect the decision to stay or goà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the decision of where to goà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[and] thedecision of which route to take (24). Cognition of environmental distance is influenced bypathway features, travel time, and travel effort which are substantially different depending ontravel mode (25). The characteristics of travel by transit, which include indeterminate waiting attransfer points and walking trips between services, may add to cognitive distance in a way thatauto travel does not.Drawing on a path-based theory of spatial learning, differences in cognitive mapsbetween socioeconomic groups may also be explained at least in part by the different travelpatterns of those groups. Certainly, adults in higher income households are more likely to havereliable access to automobiles. In contrast, over one quarter of low-income households do nothave automobiles and are transit dependent (26). But transit use is also high among adults inlow-income households with automobiles since oftentimes there are too few vehicles toaccommodate the number of household drivers. In addition to the well documented role that cognitive maps play in explainingwayfinding and route choice, we hypothesize that travel by different modes in more or lesstransit- and pedestrian-friendly areas systematically manifests in individuals cognitive mapsstructured more by transit networks (i.e. transit lines, stations, and stops) than by the arterials,Mondschein, Blumenberg, and Taylor7collectors, and local streets that make up urban street networks. In other words, a modallyspecific wayfinding experience significantly and systematically influences the formation ofcognitive maps. And these maps, in turn, influence trip generation, trip distribution, and modechoice The impact of differences in socio-demographics on personal travel behavior Individuals generate extremely complex travel-activity patterns as they participate in daily activities at different times and in different locations many researchers have conceptualized this observed behavior patterns as the outcome of choices made within constraints. The preferred activity choices utility maximization is employed. Maintenance of an individuals schedule is the key service, this helps activities to be scheduled, the individuals all have an agenda and all negotiate with other individuals to schedule social activities more especially negotiating about participants, location and time. Individuals update their state after participating in an activity and this depends on their satisfaction with their activity and no doubt individuals will come across new people as a result of this activities Another important service happens to be the maintenance of a personal network because just as their activities are influenced by their social network, their network in turn is influenced by their activity participation; individuals may visit or learn about new locations, they will also keep track of these locations they are familiar with, they will likely share them with others which is a form of influence Interaction design: interaction between agents are an important component of agent- based applications. Agents have agenda, interact and negotiate with others to schedule social activities and it includes participants, locations and time, agents interactionx have several components, the negotiation set ( the possible proposal) strategies, a rule to determine that the interaction is complete (Wooldridge, 2002) Fatima et, al (2002) explains three methods for dealing with issues in multi-issue negotiation: all issues discussed together, issues discussed separately or issues discussed one after the other. It has been shown that proposing complete deals at each step is computationally more complex because it has such advantage as pareto optimality (Fatima et al 2006). For the negotiation set, list of activity pattern has been developed including the activity purpose and location as well as indication of which acquaintances are likely to be involved and when interacting with colleagues likely during the week while weekend is for family visit In the model, it is difficult to decide issues independently eg the activity is likely to determine time, location etc and the order they should be discussed, should the activity or the location be decided first? However the choices sets for certain issues are decided independently. The protocol proceeds as follows the host proposes an activity to one or more of its acquaintances eg time and location could be there the respondent gives possible days and time they will be available, the host adjust the time to make it convenient for many to be available the respondent suggest location, the host creates intersection amongst those received, the host creates list bof potential activities, the respondent ranks them the host determinesa best activity based on every ones ranking and informs respondent of the details The effects of urban form and structure on personal travel behavior The relationship between city structure and travel behavior has been extensively researched by urban economists, geographers, and city planners. There has been a steady increase in the rate of car ownership and use in the twentieth century. There also seems to have been a steady decline in the use of transit and other modes, and the decentralization of both population and employment. Trends in travel and land use have complimented and re-enforced one another: growingcar ownership generated demand for highways, development of the highway systemchanged accessibility patterns, and population and jobs responded to these new patternsof accessibility (Jackson, 1986; Muller, 1981, 1995). By 1990, the suburbs of USmetropolitan areas were home to about 62 percent of the metropolitan population and 52percent of the jobs. At the same time, per capita car ownership and travel have reachedall-time highs (Pisarksy, 1996). 1 This section is drawn from Giuliano, 2000.2 See reviews by Giuliano, 1995; Anas, Arnott, and Small, 1998; Pickrell, 1999. From a broad perspective, city form, structure, land use and transportation trends are quite closely related. However, the historical record does not necessarily provideuseful evidence for understanding land use and transportation at a single point in time,and the empirical research on relationships between daily travel and land usecharacteristics is far less clear. Metropolitan Size and DensityExtensive research has been conducted on the relationship between metropolitandensity and modal split, commute trip length and total automobile travel. Newman andKenworthy (1989a, 1989b, 1998) conducted comparative studies of per capita gasolineconsumption and metropolitan densities. A comparison of cities around the worldyielded a non-linear relationship of increasing per capita gasoline consumption withdeclining density. Their work has been extensively criticized, primarily because percapita fuel consumption is an indirect measure of auto travel and because they fail toaccount for many other factors which affect automobile use, such as the employment rateor household size (Gordon and Richardson, 1989; Gomez-Ibaņ ez, 1991). Pushkarev and Zupan (1977) documented a positive relationship betweenpopulation density and transit use, using data from 105 urbanized areas for 1960 and1970. Gordon, Richardson, and Jun (1991) found that cities with higher average densitieshave longer automobile commute times than those with lower average densities. Notingthat density is a measure of concentration, the authors conclude that shorter commutesindicate greater efficiency of low density urban form: decentralization of both populationand jobs allows people to economize to a greater extent in selecting their job and housinglocations. The effects of various transport networks and service patterns on personal travel behavior. The personal travel environment can be described in terms of such dimensions as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Location à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Access to the central-place system of the region (Christaller, 1933) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Access to work, shopping and leisure facilities à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Provision of infrastructure facilities à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Public transport supply à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Settlement structure and density à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Topographybut also in terms of certain configurations, such as suburban structures, urban blocks or de-tached house-settlements. As an outcome of this differentiation and of the functional separa-tion in general, the individual environments offer different opportunities with regards towork, shopping or leisure activities.This paper analyses the interactions between these spatial dimensions, the individual charac-teristics of the travellers and the observed travel behaviour. The Personal Travel behavior of various individuals is affected by transportation network and service pattern in a city. This personal travel behavior which includes both the short-term and long-term travel choices of individuals in the city constitutes some central elements like car ownership and season tickets for public transportation, as well as destination, mode, activity and choice of location. Going by recent research and literature, there hasnt been any consensus reached about the effects of city spatial structure on personal travel behavior. Generally, there are differeing opinions about thsis. Some studies suggest that the impact of transportation network and service pattern on personal travel behavior is rather small (Bagley and Moktharian, 2000; Schimek, 1996;Petersen and Schallabà ¶ck, 1995; Downs, 1992; Schmiedel, 1984). Some other studies lean towards the conclusion that at least some variables are dependent on the transportation network, spatial structure and service pattern obtainable in the city. (Ewing andCervero, 2001; Newman and Kenworthy, 1999; Wiederin, 1997; Holz-Rau, 1990; Sammer etal., 1990). Travel behavior is also affected by accessibility of facilities. this also goes to show the efforts of the surrounding residential area on individual travel behavior. If a person is able to reach a range of facilities within walking distance, then the probability of a locally oriented travel behavior with smaller distances will increase, as well as increased number of walking trips The reason for this contradiction is not a basic difference in the assumptions accepted, butrather the selected spatial variables and the approaches used. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Spatial structure: For example, some investigations concluding space- independence of travel behaviour characterise the spatial structure of areas only bythe number of inhabitants a variable known to have little explanatory power inother investigations, either. According to other studies the accessibility of facilities is one of the most important spatial variables (Kitamura, Akiyama, Yamamoto andGolob, 2001; Handy and Niemeier, 1997; Simma, 2000). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Approaches used: The question, whether the analyses are conducted at an aggregate or disaggregate level, has influence on the results. Mostly, the results at an aggregatelevel are more conclusive than the results at a disaggregate level. One reason for thisis that other factors influencing travel behaviour are normally not included in aggre-gate models. But especially these factors can be very important, as disaggregatemodels have shown (Bagley and Moktharian, 2000; Simma 2000).The remainder of the paper is organised as follows: First, the study area and the computationof accessibility measures is described followed by a description of the data source used forthe analysis. Then the modelling approach Structural Equation Modelling is briefly out-lined. The core of the paper is the discussion of disaggregate person-level models for twomain trip purposes (shopping and working). The results are summarised and interpreted in thediscussion. Based on this recommendations are given. 2. Study area: Upper Austria The general focus of the study the interactions between the spatial structure, personal char-acteristics and travel behaviour cannot be investigated without a specific spatial frame. Inthis case, the Austrian province (Land) Oberà ¶sterreich was selected for two main reasons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Availability of suitable travel survey data: The provincial government of Up-per Austria conducted a very detailed and quantitatively rich travel survey in1992, whose data was available for the study. Additional spatial variables foreach municipality were added. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Small Austria: Upper Austria can be regarded as a scale model of Austria.All regional types which can be found in Austria also can be found in UpperAustria a big agglomeration from an Austrian perspective, alpine regions, in-dustrial areas and less developed rural regions. Page 5 2.1 General description Upper Austria is one of the nine Austrian provinces. It is located west of Vienna, east of Mu-nich and south of Prague. It has a size of 12000 km ² and about 1.3 million inhabitants. At avery general level Upper Austria can be divided into three parts into the Bà ¶hmische Massivin the north of Upper Austria, the Alpenvorland in the centre of the province and the Alps inthe south.The northern part of Upper Austria is disadvantaged in several ways. This area is neither wellsuited for agriculture nor for tourism. Additionally the border to the Czech Republic wasclosed for the five decades of the Cold War. As a result, the opportunities for industrial de-velopment after World War II were limited. The situation is different in the other parts of Up-per Austria. The Alpenvorland is the centre of agriculture and industry, including a number oflarge scale factory complexes in the main cities. Half of the population lives in the Alpen-vorland, and 13 of the 15 largest towns are situated here. The Alps, especially the Salzkam-mergut with its lakes and the skiing areas, are dependent on tourism, including second-homeownership.Upper Austria consists of 15 districts, three cities with district status (Linz, Steyr and Wels)and 445 incorporated municipalities. The respective district capitals are both centres of thelocal administration, as well as of shopping and industrial location for their area. Linz is thecapital of the province and by far its largest city. The 445 municipalities are very different intheir spatial, socio-demographic and economic characteristics. The provinces overall struc-ture can be characterised as follows (see Table 1 for a more detailed description of the spatialattributes). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Distribution of the inhabitants: 26% of the municipalities have less than 1000inhabitants, 40% of the municipalities have between 1000 and 2000 inhabitantsand further 18% of the municipalities have between 2000 and 3000 inhabitants.Only one municipality has more than 100000 inhabitants Linz. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Location of the municipalities: The location of a municipality can be describedby two distance-variables the distance to the relevant district capital and thedistance to Linz. For the districts along the border to the Land Salzburg, Salz-burg is the relevant main centre for employment and shopping. The distance toSalzburg replaces the distance to Linz for all municipalities, where more resi-dents recorded trips to Salzburg than to Linz. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Number of accessible facilities: The number of accessible facilities is a meas-ure for the supply of activity opportunities for a particular household. It is high,if a household can reach a shop, a supermarket, a bank, a post-office, a kinder- Page 6 garten, school, a pharmacy and a doctor in walking-distance (ten minutes). Itequals zero, if the household cannot reach any facility within this time. In everymunicipality there are at least some households which cannot reach any facilitywithin a reasonable walking distance. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Share of working women: Between 25 and 50% of the women in a municipal-ity are working. This variable is used in the models, because it characterises theimportance of the traditional nuclear family and the sex-specific division of la-bour within the municipalities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Commuting: Because workplaces are mainly concentrated in Linz and the dis-trict capitals, people in the small villages often have to commute. In some mu-nicipalities more than 80% of the working adults are commuters. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Share of farms: In some communities, the agriculture is still dominant indicat-ing a relatively low state of development. The importance of the agriculture maynot only be shown by its share of employees, but also by the share of farmsamong all buildings. The latter variable is especially interesting because manyfarms are run by farmers on a part-time basis.Table 1Descriptive statistics for the municipalities of Upper Austria (445 municipalities) MeanStandarddeviationMinimumMaximumNumber of inhabitants308110530245208727Distance to district capital1710059Distance to Linz (Salzburg)46210143Number of reachable facilities (mu-nicipality level)2.61.407.2Number of reachable facilities(household)3.93.208Share of farms1912069Share of commuters62111584Share of working women3642550 These figures are calculated for each single municipality without considering the neighbour-ing municipalities and their attributes. Statements across municipal borders can be made byapplying accessibility-measures. Page 7 2.2 Accessibility measures There is a wide range of possible definitions for the term accessibility, such as the potentialof opportunities for interaction, the ease of spatial interaction or the attractiveness of anode in a network taking into Travel is derived from activities that involve people participating in things such as school, work, sport, shopping, social events leisure. Activities that is non-discretionary such as work and school can be explained in part by the travelers socio-demographic characteristics and generalized travel cost (Hackney and Marchal, 2007). Other things not easily predictable are long term decisions such as moving to a particular town, participating in other activities etc, the reported purpose for a large number of trips are social and leisure ranging from 25 to 40% for various countries (Axhausen 2006). Interest people in activities participation is as well driven by our changing use of information communication technology, the need for physically visiting places is drastically reduced by the use of internet for activities such as banking, shopping and participating in online communication or conversation and in overall, it affects peoples travel behaviors. People could change their activity schedules and their transport plans on the fly as a result of receiving information via a mobile phone whilst traveling or participating in an activity outside the home. A graphic representation of individuals and their relationship could be seen in social network, if these social networks are well understood it will lead to a better prediction of social activity schedules and forecast of travel patterns and demand for urban facilities more especially those that have to do with social and leisure activities. The understanding of these social networks comes in handy in influencing the urban design of residential areas and public spaces in order to encourage participation in social leisure activities in local communities. Trip destination is determined by the members of ones social network because that is where the social activities go towards. Mc Pherson et, al. (2001) defined homophile as principle that contact between similar people occurs at a higher rate than among dissimilar people, some of the attributes used as similar measures includes age, social class, occupation, abilities etc. distance plays a key role in the maintenance of relationships. McPherson et al (2001) claim that the most basic source of homophily is space because according to him we are more likely to have contact with those who are closer to us in geographic distance than those who are distant. People influence each other by providing information or observing behavior eg a friend tells you about a barbing saloon and you wish to go get a haircut there. Other factors that indirectly influence travel behaviors includes moving closer to ones workplace, family or choice of vehicle. Greater proportion of travel has to do with social/leisure purposes; there is every need to understand the reason behind these. Agent based modeling is commonly used for applications where the behavior and intentions of heterogeneous individuals as well interactions between individuals is required. Lists of attributes have been presented by Bonabeau (2002) and Macaland North (2006) that systems should possess in order for agent based modeling to be considered include; relationship form and dissolve, agents have dynamic relationship with other agents, agents have a spatial component to their behaviors and interactions . These are complex relationships and interactions between individuals and the individuals situated ness in an urban environment, each agent will have some level of satisfaction and will derive utility from sharing objectives, if along the line they are not satisfied with this current situation, then they will try to change it. The same applies to their involvement in the community, it depends on their needs The environment has a network representation derived from the actual road network. These links contain attributes for the actual distance and ideas of travel times for different modes. Nodes exist at a point in space and mostly contain location that represent where joint activities take place or can be undertaken; there are different types of location and each type has a set of attributes, the major distinction between private and public residence (eg museums, parks, restaurants, gyms etc) they have opening hours Personal social network defines each persons acquaintances, each pair has a type of relationship (eg friend, work etc) and can also tell how long they have seen each other, this model also contain neighborhood, here groups are formal and informal clubs that the individual is a member of eg special interest clubs, sports club etc, here the individual is effectively connected to many people, some connections may remain as friends even when the individual has left the club, t